Brainwave Entrainment has the ability to deal with stress, anxieties or to increase attention and motivation, using brainwave entrainment hardware and software. A wide range of sessions are included, with protocols based on the methods used in clinical studies for everything from stress, rebalancing the Chakras, to powerful programmes for concentration, focus and learning.

Mind For Life have invested in training and equipment to provide this facility in the UK. Read the research and information below.

The therapy is appropriate for all ages from 7 years to 77 years.

 

What are Brainwaves?
Your brain is made up of billions of brain cells called neurons, which use electricity to communicate with each other. The combination of millions of neurons sending signals at once produces an enormous amount of electrical activity in the brain, which can be detected using sensitive medical equipment (such as an EEG), measuring electricity levels over areas of the scalp. The combination of electrical activity of the brain is commonly called a BrainWave pattern, because of its cyclic, "wave-like" nature.
Below is one of the first recordings of brain activity.

Here is a more modern EEG recording:


Brainwave Frequencies
With the discovery of brainwaves came the discovery that electrical activity in the brain will change depending on what the person is doing. For instance, the brainwaves of a sleeping person are vastly different than the brainwaves of someone wide awake. Over the years, more sensitive equipment has brought us closer to figuring out exactly what brainwaves represent and with that, what they mean about a person's health and state of mind.
Here is a table showing the known brainwave types and their associated mental states:

Wave

Frequency

Associated Mental State

Beta	12hz - 38hz	Wide awake. This is generally the mental state most people are in during the day and most of their waking lives. Usually, this state in itself is uneventful, but don't underestimate its importance. Many people lack sufficient Beta activity, which can cause mental or emotional disorders such as depression, ADD and insomnia. Stimulating Beta activity can improve emotional stability, energy levels, attentiveness and concentration.
Alpha	8hz - 12hz	Awake but relaxed and not processing much information. When you get up in the morning and just before sleep, you are naturally in this state. When you close your eyes your brain automatically starts producing more Alpha waves. Alpha is usually the goal of experienced meditators, Since Alpha is a very receptive, absorbent mental state, you can also use it for effective self-hypnosis, mental re-programming, accelerated learning and more.
Theta	3hz - 8hz	Light sleep or extreme relaxation. Theta can also be used for hypnosis, accelerated learning and self-programming using pre-recorded suggestions.
Delta	0.2hz - 3hz	Deep, dreamless sleep. Delta is the slowest band of brainwaves. When the dominant brainwave is Delta, your body is healing itself and "resetting" its internal clocks. You do not dream in this state and are completely unconscious.

The Significance of Brainwaves
You can tell a lot about a person simply by observing their brainwave patterns. For example, anxious people tend to produce an overabundance of high Beta waves while people with depression tend to produce an overabundance of slower Alpha/Theta brainwaves. Researchers have found that not only are brainwaves representative of  mental state, but they can be stimulated to change a person's mental state, and even help treat a variety of mental disorders. Certain Brainwave patterns can even be used to access exotic or extraordinary experiences such as "lucid dreaming" or ultra-realistic visualization.

A Brief History of Brainwave Entrainment
Brainwave entrainment was first identified in 1934, although its effects had been noted as early as Ptolemy.

Not long after the discovery of the Alpha brainwave by Hans Berger in 1929, researchers found that the strength of the wave could be "driven" beyond its natural frequency using flickering lights. This is called "Photic Driving", which is another word for brainwave entrainment using photic (light) stimulation. In 1942 Dempsey and Morison discovered that repetitive tactile stimulation could also produce entrainment and in 1959, Dr. Chatrian observed auditory entrainment in response to clicks at a frequency of 15 per second.

By the 1960s entrainment started to become a tool rather than a phenomenon of the brain. Anaesthesiologist M.S. Sadove, MD, used photic stimulation to reduce the amount of anaesthetic needed for surgery. Bernard Margolis published an article on brainwave entrainment used during dental procedures, noting less anaesthesia required, less gagging, less bleeding and a general reduction in anxiety.

In a 1973 issue of Scientific American, Dr. Gerald Oster examined how combining 2 pure tones resulted in a rhythmic beat which he called Binaural and Monaural Beats. In comparing Binaural beats against Monaural beats, Oster noted that Monaural beats were shown to elicit extremely strong cortical responses, which is the electrical activity responsible for entrainment. Oster concluded that while Binaural Beats produced very little neural response (because the depth of a Binaural Beat is only 3db or 1/10 the volume of a whisper), they could be useful in diagnosing certain neurological disorders.

Studies in the 1980’s, continued with Dr. Norman Shealy, Dr. Glen Solomon and others researching entrainment for headache relief, Serotonin and HGH release, as well as general relaxation. Michael Hutchison wrote his landmark book MegaBrain in 1981, outlining the many possible uses of entrainment from meditation to super-learning. In 1980, Tsuyoshi Inouye and associates at the Department of Neuropsychiatry at Osaka University Medical School in Japan found that photic stimulation produced "cerebral synchronization". Dr. Norman Shealy later confirmed the effect, finding that photic stimulation produced synchronization in more than 5,000 patients. In 1984, Dr. Brockopp analyzed audio-visual brain stimulation and in particular hemispheric synchronization during EEG monitoring. He said "By inducing hemispheric coherence the machine can contribute to an improved intellectual functioning of the brain."

In 1981, Arturo Manns published a study showing the effectiveness of Isochronic Tones. This was later confirmed by others such as David Siever.

Studies continued into the 90's with researchers such as Dr. Russell, Dr. Carter and others who explored the vast potential of using entrainment with ADD and learning disorders. Research has also been conducted into PMS, Chronic Fatigue, Chronic Pain, Depression, Hypertension and a number of other disorders. Steady research continues today with the work of Dr. Thomas Budzynski, David Siever, psychologist Michael Joyce and many others. There is over 70 years of solid research behind brainwave entrainment . So why hasn't it become better known? Mainly because our culture is very much dependent on drugs, and, in comparison to the pharmaceutical giants, there is not a lot of money to be made in entrainment: it is inexpensive, and can be a viable solution to a huge variety of problems. Read the research and discover the science behind it. We have found that most people are sceptical until the day they actually undergo the process. Despite the combination of solid scientific, empirical and a huge amount of anecdotal evidence, the world is still very sceptical of entrainment and brain training. But the word is spreading. Every day more psychologists, mental health clinics, coaches, teachers and professionals are discovering entrainment, and finding it remarkably useful.

Further Reading
Responses to Clicks from the Human Brain: Some Depth Electrographic Observations, Gian Emilio Chatrian, M.D., Magnus C. Petersen, M.D., and Jorge A. Lazarte, M.D. - Rochester State Hospital (1959).
Academic Performance Enhancement with Photic Stimulation and EDR Feedback, Thomas Budzynski, Ph.D., John Jordy, M.Ed., Helen Kogan Budzynski, Ph.D., Hsin-Yi Tang, M.S., and Keith Claypoole, Ph.D., Journal of Neurotherapy
Repeated stimulation induced neuronal activation (SINA), with cognitive and behavioral functioning changes in ADHD children., Harold Russell, Ph.D., Journal of Neurotherapy
A Comparison of Depths of Relaxation Produced by Various Techniques and Neurotransmitters by Brainwave Entrainment, Shealy, N., Cady, R., Cox, R., Liss, S., Clossen, W., Veehoff, D., Shealy and Forest Institute of Professional Psychology A study done for Comprehensive Health Care.
Auditory beats in the brain., Oster, G., Scientific American, 229, 94-102.
Isochronic Tones and Brainwave Entrainment, David Siever, C.E.T.
The central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation., Walter, V. J. & Walter, W. G., Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 57-86
Visual Evoked Responses Elicited by Rapid Stimulation, Kinney, J.A., McKay, C., Mensch, Lurisa, Encephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol 34: 7-13
The Interaction of Certain Spontaneous and Induced Cortical Potentials, Dempsey, E., Morison, R., American Journal of Physiology, 135, 310-307
Neurochemical Responses to Cranial Electrical Stimulation and Photo-Stimulation via Brain Wave Synchronization., Dr. Roger K. Cady, Dr. Norman Shealy, Study performed by the Shealy Institute of Comprehensive Health Care, Springfield, Missouri, 1990
The Application of Audiostimulation and Electromyographic Biofeedback to Bruxism and Myofascial Pain-Dysfunction Syndrome, Dr. Arturo Manns, Miralles, R., Adrian, H., Oral Surgery, 1981, Vol. 52

Fig. 1

EEG Recording. Spectrogram View (4-30), middle of an Alpha session

Entrainment Methods

Before we start, let's make sure we have a handle on some of the basic concepts behind brainwave entrainment.

Any Stimulus Can Be Used
Most people's only experience with brainwave entrainment has been through binaural beats, so it is important to note that they are not the only way the brain can be entrained. In fact, the brain is affected by any kind of rhythmic stimuli. Clicks, drum beats, light flickers, and even physical vibrations or electric pulses have all been proven to effectively entrain the brain. However, to have a significant effect, the stimuli must configured correctly and be precisely timed.

Embedded Entrainment
Using a modern tool, there are ways of embedding the precise and rapid modulations into sound files or white noise, without distorting the music. This is important because many people will find audible beats difficult to listen to at first.

Mind For Life have equipment that is capable of producing all known forms of audio and visual brainwave entrainment, including some unique methods specifically developed.
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Below are the explanations for some of the methods available:

Binaural Beats
The most well known form of brainwave entrainment is binaural beats, where a slightly different tone is presented into each ear. When pure tones are mixed together, their waveforms add and subtract from one another, resulting in a pulse. In the case of binaural beats, the two tones are mixed by the brain itself (one in each ear). The pulses, called "beats", formed by mixing these tones is what causes entrainment to occur.



Monaural Beats
Monaural beats are based on the same concept as binaural beats - combining two tones to form a beat. The difference is that monaural beats are formed when two tones combine digitally or naturally before the sound reaches the ears, as opposed to combining in the brain like binaural beats.

Harmonic "Box" Constructions
"Box" constructions use a combination of both monaural and binaural beats. For the first time, the "Harmonic Box X" construction invented by James Mann is available natively in Mind WorkStation (previously, complex workarounds and session configurations were required to form this construction).

Isochronic Tones
Isochronic tones are evenly spaced tone pulses. Unlike binaural and monaural beats, isochronic tones do not rely on the combination of two tones - the "beat" is created manually by turning a tone on and off. Widely regarded as the most effective tone-based method, isochronic beats produce very strong cortical responses in the brain. Many people who do not respond well to binaural beats often respond very well to isochronic tones.
Here is an example of what an isochronic beat would look like:



Pitch Panning
Pitch panning is a method used to create binaural beats using a sound file or a single tone as the "carrier". This filter modulates the pitch slightly up and down, and at the same time pans the modulation between stereo sides, such that one side will have a slightly higher pitch while the other side has a pitch that is slightly lower. The result is a kind of spatial positioning that, when listened to through stereo headphones, produces a similar effect to binaural beats. However, unlike binaural beats, you have the option of only using a single sound source (one tone, not two) or even a sound file.

Modulations & Audio Filtering
Modulating sound is a way to produce brainwave entrainment using something as complex as a musical track. In effect, this is "embedding" brainwave entrainment into the audio. Any sound can be used, from nature sounds to white noise to a full classical symphony. Modulation works by rhythmically adjusting a component in the sound. For example, volume modulation would be used to increase and decrease the volume to create the rhythmic stimulus necessary for entrainment to occur.
Below is an example of a single filter (volume modulation) applied to music:



Frequency Band Selection
Frequency band selection is a patent-pending feature completely unique to Mind WorkStation. The problem with modulation (above) is that it can often distort the audio, particularly when used with music or certain nature sounds like rain. Frequency band selection solves this problem by selectively modulating certain parts of an audio file, instead of the whole of it. To give you an idea of how this works, below is an outline of the approximate frequency ranges of various instruments. The brainwave entrainment is embedded into a lower frequency range only - affecting parts of the bass and cello, but leaving the viola and violin alone. This illustrates how frequency band selection can be used to affect only one part of a sound file. Multiple frequency bands can also be selected, but for simplicity the below example only uses one.



Frequency band selection is an important advancement, allowing entrainment to be embedded into any sound file with virtually no negative effect on the existing audio. Additionally, the effectiveness of the session is actually increased because it allows for much higher intensity levels.

Left / Right Hemisphere Stimulation
Each ear is connected to the opposite brain hemisphere, so this presents the opportunity to stimulate each hemisphere in different ways. Many modern brainwave entrainment protocols require this flexibilit

Brainwave Entrainment refers to the brain's electrical response to rhythmic sensory stimulation, such as pulses of sound or light. When the brain is given a stimulus, through the ears, eyes or other senses, it emits an electrical charge in response, called a Cortical Evoked Response (shown below). These electrical responses travel throughout the brain to become what you "see and hear". This activity can be measured using sensitive electrodes attached to the scalp.



When the brain is presented with a rhythmic stimulus, such as a drum beat for example, the rhythm is reproduced in the brain in the form of these electrical impulses. If the rhythm becomes fast and consistent enough, it can start to resemble the natural internal rhythms of the brain, called brainwaves. When this happens, the brain responds by synchronizing its own electric cycles to the same rhythm. This is commonly called the Frequency Following Response (or FFR):



FFR can be useful because brainwaves are very much related to mental state. For example, a 4 Hz brainwave is associated with sleep, so a 4 Hz sound pattern would help reproduce the sleep state in your brain. The same concept can be applied to nearly all mental states, including concentration, creativity and many others. It can even act as a gateway to exotic or extraordinary experiences, such as deep meditation or "lucid dreaming" type states. When you listen closely to the special sessions, you will hear small, rapid pulses of sound. As the session progresses, the frequency rate of these pulses is changed slowly, thereby changing your brainwave patterns and guiding your mind to various useful mental states.
Brainwave Entrainment has over 70 years of solid research behind it.

Entrainment is a principle of physics. It is defined as the synchronization of two or more rhythmic cycles. The principles of entrainment appear in chemistry, neurology, biology, pharmacology, medicine, astronomy and more.

While working on the design of the pendulum clock in 1656, Dutch scientist Christian Huygens found that if he placed two unsynchronized clocks side by side on a wall, they would slowly synchronize to each other. In fact, the synchronization was so precise not even mechanical intervention could calibrate them more accurately. A clock is a simple example of a system responding to entrainment, but similar effects can be observed to more complex systems such as the brain.

Sources: References / Further Reading

Anoukhin, A. "EEG Alpha Rhythm Frequency and Intelligence in Normal Individuals." Intelligence, 23: 1-14
Barber, T. X. (1957). "Experiments in hypnosis." Scientific American, 196, 54-61.
Benson, H., Wallace, R.K. (1972). "The Physiology of Meditation." Scientific American, Vol 226, No 2, 84-90
Berg, K, Siever, D (1999). "Audio-Visual Entrainment as a Treatment Modality for Seasonal Affective Disorder." Presented at the Society for Neuronal Regulation.
Berg, K, Mueller, H., Siebael, D., Siever, D. (1999). "Outcome of Medical Methods, Audio-Visual Entrainment, and Nutritional Supplementation for the Treatment of Fibromyalgia Syndrome." Presented at the Society for Neuronal Regulation.
Bermer, F. (1958). "Cerebral and cerebellar potentials." Physiological Review, 38, 357-388.
Boersma, F., Gagnon, C. (1992). "The Use of Repetitive Audiovisual Entrainment in the Management of Chronic Pain." Medical Hypnosis Journal, Vol 7, No3: 80-97
Brackopp, G. W. (1984). Review of research on Multi-Modal sensory stimulation with clinical implications and research proposals. Unpublished manuscript--see Hutchison (1986).
Budzynski, T. H. (1977). "Tuning in on the twilight zone." Psychology Today, August.
Cade, C. M. & Coxhead, N. (1979) "The Awakened Mind: BiofeedBack and the Development of Higher States of Consciousness." New York: Delacorte Press.
Chatrian, G., Petersen, M., Lazarte, J. (1960). "Responses to Clicks from the Human Brain: Some Depth Electrographic Observation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 12: 479-487
Deikman, A. (1969). "De-automatization and the mystic experience." In C. T. Tart (Ed.), Altered States of Consciousness. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Dempsey, E., Morison, R. (1942). "The Interaction of Certain Spontaneous and Induce Cortical Potentials." American Journal of Physiology, 135: 301-307
Eppley, K.R., Abrams, A. (1989). "Differential Effects Of Relaxation Techniques on Trait Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis." Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol 45, 6: 957-973
Evans, F. J., Gustafson, L. A., O'Connell, D. N., Orne, M. T. & Shor, R. E. (1970). "Verbally-induced behavioral response during sleep." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1, 1-26.
Fox, P., Raichle, M. (1985). "Stimulus Rate Determines Regional Blood Flow in Striate Cortex." Annals of Neurology, Vol 17, No 3: 303-305.
Fredrick, J., Lubar, J., Rasey, H., Blackburn, J. (1999). "Effects of 18.5 Hz Audiovisual Stimulation On EEG Amplitude at the Vertex." Proceedings AAPB Thirteenth Anniversary Annual Meeting, 42-45.
Foster, D. S. (1990) "EEG and subjective correlates of alpha frequency binaural beats stimulation combined with alpha biofeedBack." Ann Arbor, MI: UMI, Order No. 9025506.
Foulkes, D. & Vogel, G. (1964). "Mental activity at sleep-onset." Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, 231-243.
Giannitrapani, D. (1969). "EEG Average Frequency and Intelligence." Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 27, 480-486.
Gontgovsky, S., Montgomery, D. (1999). "The Physiological Response to "Beta Sweep" Entrainment." Proceedings AAPB Thirteenth Anniversary Annual Meeting, 62-65.
Hoovey, Z. B., Heinemann, U. & Creutzfeldt, O. D. (1972). "Inter-hemispheric 'synchrony' of alpha waves." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 32, 337-347.
Hutchison, M. (1986). Megabrain. New York: Beech Tree Books. William Morrow.
Hutchison, M. (1990). "Special issue on sound/light." Megabrain Report: Vol 1, No. 2.
Jausovec, N. (1996). "Differences in EEG Alpha Activity Related to Giftedness." Intelligence, 23, 159-173.
Joyce, M., Siever, D., Twittey, M. (2000). "Audio Visual Entrainment Program as a Treatment for Behavior Disorders in a School Setting." Journal of Neurotherapy, Vol 4, No 2, 9-25
Kooi, K. A. (1971). Fundamentals of Electroencephalography. New York: Harper & Row.
Manns, A., Mirralles, R., Adrian, H. (1981). "The Application of Audio Stimulation and Electromyographic Biofeedback to Bruxism and Myofascial Pain-Dysfunction Syndrome." Oral Surgery, Vol 52, No 3, 247-252.
Markland, O.N. (1990). "Alpha Rythms." Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 7, 163-189.
Mavromatis, A. (1987). "Hypnagogia: The Unique State of Consciousness Between Wakefulness and Sleep." New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Miller, E. E. (1987). Software for the Mind: How to program Your Mind for Optimum Health and Performance. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts.
Oster, G. (1973). "Auditory beats in the brain." Scientific American, 229, 94-102.
Rosenzweig, M. R. "Auditory Localization." Perception: Mechanisms and Models, Readings from Scientific American, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Fransisco.
Rossi, E. L. (1986). The Psychobiology of Mind-Body Healing. New York: W. W. Norton.
Rubin, F. (1968). (Ed.), Current Research in Hypnopaedia. London: MacDonald.
Schacter, D. L. (1977). "EEG theta waves and psychological phenomena: A review and analysis." Psychology, 5, 47-82.
Shealy, N., Cady, R., Cox, R., Liss, S., Clossen, W., Veehoff, D. "A Comparison of Depths of Relaxation Produced by Various Techniques and Neurotransmitters by Brainwave Entrainment - Shealy and Forest Institute of Professional Psychology" A study done for Comprehensive Health Care, Unpublished.
Siever, D. "Isochronic Tones and Brainwave Entrainment." Unpublished.
Siever, D. (2002) "The Rediscovery of Audio-Visual Entrainment Technology." Self-published by mindalive.ca.
Siever, D., Twittey, M. "Light and Sound Stimulation as a Treatment for Chronic Pain." Unpublished.
Svyandoshch, A. (1968). "The assimilation and memorization of speech during natural sleep." In F. Rubin (Ed.), Current Research in Hypnopaedia. London: MacDonald.
Thomas, N., Siever, D. (1976). "The Effect of Repetitive Audio/Visual Stimulation on Skeletomotor and Vascular Activity." Hypnosis - The Fourth European Congress at Oxford.
Timmerman, D. L., Lubar, J. F., Rasey, H. W., Frederick, J. A. (1999). "Effects of 20-Min Audio-Visual Stimulation (AVS) at Dominant Alpha Frequency and Twice Dominant Alpha Frequency on the Cortical EEG." International Journal of Psychophysiology.
Toman, J (1941). "Flicker Potentials and the Alpha Rhythm in Man." Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol 4, 51-61.
Trudeau, D. (1999). "A Trial of 18 Hz Audio-Visual Stimulation (AVS) on Attention and Concentration in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)." Presented at the Society for Neuronal Regulation.
Van Dusen, W. (1975). The Presence of Other Worlds. London: Wildwood House.
Vogt, F., Klimesh, W., Dopelmayr, M. (1998). "High Frequency Components in the Alpha Band and Memory Performance." Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 15, 167-172.
Walter, V. J. & Walter, W. G. (1949). "The central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 57-86.

Bermer, F. "Cerebral and cerebellar potentials." Physiological Review, 38, 357-388.
Chatrian, G., Petersen, M., Lazarte, J. "Responses to Clicks from the Human Brain: Some Depth Electrographic Observation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 12: 479-487
Gontgovsky, S., Montgomery, D. "The Physiological Response to "Beta Sweep" Entrainment." Proceedings AAPB Thirteenth Anniversary Annual Meeting, 62-65.
Oster, G. "Auditory beats in the brain." Scientific American, 229, 94-102.
Shealy, N., Cady, R., Cox, R., Liss, S., Clossen, W., Veehoff, D. "A Comparison of Depths of Relaxation Produced by Various Techniques and Neurotransmitters by Brainwave Entrainment" - Shealy and Forest Institute of Professional Psychology A study done for Comprehensive Health Care, Unpublished.
Siever, D. "Isochronic Tones and Brainwave Entrainment." Unpublished, but available through his book the Rediscovery of Audio-Visual Entrainment.
Walter, V. J. & Walter, W. G. "The central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 57-86.

Peer-Reviewed, Placebo-Controlled Studies
Below is a list of peer-reviewed, controlled studies on brainwave entrainment.
We have categorized them by the type of control used.

Studies that compared different experimental conditions against each other:
Howard, C. E., Graham, L. E., 2nd and Wycoff, S. J., 1986. A comparison of methods for reducing stress among dental students. J Dent Educ. 50, 542-544.
Lane, J. D., Kasian, S. J., Owens, J. E. and Marsh, G. R., 1998. Binaural auditory beats affect vigilance performance and mood. Physiol Behav. 63, 249-252.
Leonard, K. N., Telch, M. J. and Harrington, P. J., 1999. Dissociation in the laboratory: a comparison of strategies. Behav Res Ther. 37, 49-61.
Morse, D. R. and Chow, E., 1993. The effect of the Relaxodont brain wave synchronizer on endodontic anxiety: evaluation by galvanic skin resistance, pulse rate, physical reactions, and questionnaire responses. Int J Psychosom. 40, 68-76.
Ossebaard, H. C., 2000. Stress reduction by technology? An experimental study into the effects of brainmachines on burnout and state anxiety. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 25, 93-101.
Rosenfeld, J. P., Reinhart, A. M. and Srivastava, S., 1997. The effects of alpha (10-Hz) and beta (22-Hz) "entrainment" stimulation on the alpha and beta EEG bands: individual differences are critical to prediction of effects. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 22, 3-20.
San Martini, P., Venturini, R., Zapponi, G. A. and Loizzo, A., 1979. Interaction between intermittent photic stimulation and auditory stimulation on the human EEG. Preliminary investigation through power spectral analysis. Neuropsychobiology. 5, 201-206.
Williams, J., Ramaswamy, D. and Oulhaj, A., 2006. 10 Hz flicker improves recognition memory in older people. BMC Neurosci. 7, 21.
Williams, J. H., 2001. Frequency-specific effects of flicker on recognition memory. Neuroscience. 104, 283-286.

Studies with music as controls:
Joyce, M. and Siever, D., 2000. Audio-Visual Entrainment (AVE) Program as a Treatment for Behavior Disorders in a School Setting. Journal of Neurotherapy. 4, 9-25.
Kliempt, P., Ruta, D., Ogston, S., Landeck, A. and Martay, K., 1999. Hemispheric-synchronisation during anaesthesia: a double-blind randomised trial using audiotapes for intra-operative nociception control. Anaesthesia. 54, 769-773.
Padmanabhan, R., Hildreth, A. J. and Laws, D., 2005. A prospective, randomised, controlled study examining binaural beat audio and pre-operative anxiety in patients undergoing general anaesthesia for day case surgery. Anaesthesia. 60, 874-877.
Wahbeh, H., Calabrese, C. and Zwickey, H., 2007a. Binaural beat technology in humans: a pilot study to assess psychologic and physiologic effects. J Altern Complement Med. 13, 25-32.
Wahbeh, H., Calabrese, C., Zwickey, H. and Zajdel, D., 2007b. Binaural beat technology in humans: a pilot study to assess neuropsychologic, physiologic, and electroencephalographic effects. J Altern Complement Med. 13, 199-206.

 

 

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